What makes sb tick

This reverse dictionary allows you to search for words by their definition. Check out RelatedWords. Click words for definitions. As you've probably noticed, words for " term " are listed above. Hopefully the generated list of words for " term " above suit your needs. If not, you might want to check out Related Words - another project of mine which uses a different technique not though that it works best with single words, not phrases.

The way Reverse Dictionary works is pretty simple. A bias could have occurred due to language and cultural context e. The interpretation bias was reduced as the author has previously worked in the study area and is familiar with the cultures and practices of the farmers in this region. The study has also engaged community members directly and in doing so has already raised awareness about ticks and tick-borne diseases in cattle.

Therefore, awareness programs should focus on informing farmers on topics such as the role of ticks as potential vectors for diseases in animals and humans, the life cycle and seasonal pattern of locally present tick species, effective tick control strategies, and appropriate use of acaricides. This study also observed that the farmers in the study area did not perceive ticks and TBDs as significant problems for livestock health.

However, in recent years, there has been a discussion at the policy level about supplying acaricides on a cost-sharing basis. Should the government implement this cost-sharing system, farmers might need to design tick control strategies of their own and will likely want to reduce cost implications.

The Department of Livestock DoL might have to provide technical support to strategize tick control in such a way that it suits a particular farming system.

This is where the findings of this and other KAP studies would play an important role in designing and implementing tick control programs. Therefore, we recommend similar KAP studies in other farming communities in Bhutan. We would like to acknowledge the insights and guidance provided by Dr. Carl S. Ribble and Dr. Margaret L. We are grateful to the Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Bhutan, for the support rendered during our fieldwork in Bhutan.

We thank Mr. Tashi Norbu, Mr. Lhatru, Mr. Kinley Tenzin, Mr. Jigme Choeda, Ms. Karma Wangmo, and Ms. Deki Jamtsho for their help in conducting the KAP survey. N S Tamang, Mr. Dorji Wangchuk, Mr. Karma Tenzin, and Mr. Kunzang Namgyel for helping us with the logistics. We also thank the local government officials of the Gewog administration, Samkhar, for their support during our fieldwork.

Browse Subject Areas? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. Abstract Livestock farming plays an important role in supporting the livelihood of resource-poor subsistence farmers in Bhutan.

Materials and methods Study area Bhutan is divided administratively into 20 districts Dzongkhags and sub-districts Gewogs. Download: PPT. Fig 1. Map of Bhutan showing the study area Samkhar Gewog in Trashigang. Questionnaire survey A item structured questionnaire consisting of four different sections was prepared in English and used for the collection of data S1 Questionnaire.

Statistical analyses The data collected through EpiCollect5 were checked for completeness using data filtering options and imported to R computing software R Core Team , Vienna, Austria for analyses. Results Sociodemographic characteristics Two hundred and forty-six respondents were interviewed, and the response rate was percent. Knowledge about ticks and TBDs in cattle All respondents had seen ticks on the cattle: Fig 2. Table 2. Results of multiple logistic regression analyses to determine the association between the explanatory variables and each of the binary outcome variables of knowledge having adequate knowledge about ticks as potential vectors of diseases or not and attitude having a favourable attitude toward tick control programs or not.

Attitude toward tick prevention and control programs in cattle Based on our scoring criteria, Fig 3. Fig 4. Self-reported farm practices Of the respondents: Supporting information. S1 Table. S2 Table. S3 Table.

Results of logistic regression analysis to understand the association between the explanatory variables and the binary outcome variable having adequate knowledge about ticks as potential vectors or not.

S4 Table. Results of logistic regression analysis to understand the association between the explanatory variables and the binary outcome variable having a favourable attitude toward tick control programs or not. S1 Questionnaire. Questionnaire for assessment of knowledge, attitude, and practices KAP survey on ticks and tick-borne diseases among cattle owners in Samkhar gewog, Trashigang, Bhutan.

S1 Dataset. Data collected during the survey and used for analysis. Acknowledgments We would like to acknowledge the insights and guidance provided by Dr. References 1. National Statistics Bureau. A cross-sectional survey of population demographics, the prevalence of major disease conditions and reason-specific proportional mortality of domestic cattle in the Kingdom of Bhutan.

Prev Vet Med. Status of Notifiable Animal Diseases in Bhutan, — Minjauw B, McLeod A. Tick-borne diseases and poverty. The impact of ticks and tickborne diseases on the livelihood of small-scale and marginal livestock owners in India and eastern and southern Africa.

Sustainable tick and tickborne disease control in livestock improvement in developing countries. Vet Parasitol. Tick-induced paralysis and toxicoses. Page Biology of Ticks Volume 2. Scrub typhus in Bhutan: a synthesis of data from to Seroprevalence of rickettsial infections and Q fever in Bhutan.

Indian J Med Res. Guidelines for the diagnosis of tick-borne bacterial diseases in Europe. Clin Microbiol Infect. External parasiticides. National Veterinary Drug Formulary 2nd Edition. Department of Livestock, Royal Government of Bhutan; Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. Launiala A. Some observations from medical anthropology research on malaria in pregnancy in Malawi.

Anthropol Matters. View Article Google Scholar Green EC. Field Methods. Tick-borne disease preventive practices and perceptions in an endemic area. Knowledge and preventive behaviors towards tick-borne diseases in Delaware. Knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors regarding tick-borne disease prevention in endemic areas. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding ticks and tick-borne diseases, Finland.

Veterinary Epidemiologic Research. PHCB Trashigang. Livestock Statistics. Evaluation of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of deer owners following identification of a cluster of captive deer with rabies in Pennsylvania in July A community-based knowledge, attitude, and practice survey on rabies among cattle owners in selected areas of Bhutan.

Allison P. Chhogyel N, Kumar L. Climate change and potential impacts on agriculture in Bhutan: a discussion of pertinent issues. Agric Food Secur. What Makes Ticks Tick? J Travel Med.

Prevalence of hard tick infestations in cattle of West Bengal, India. Biol Rhythm Res. Host resistance in cattle to infestation with the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus.

Parasite Immunol. Crossbreeding and intensification of smallholder crop-cattle farming systems in Bhutan. Livest Sci. An epidemiological survey on investigation of tick infestation in cattle at Chittagong District, Bangladesh. Afr J Microbiol Res. J Vet Med. Survey of tick infestation of cattle at four selected grazing sites in the tropics.

Glob Vet. Spickler AR. Bovine Babesiosis. Revisiting an old disease? Risk factors for bovine enzootic haematuria in the Kingdom of Bhutan.

The HDM fecal particle represents a rich milieu of molecules that can be recognized by pathogen-recognition receptors of the innate immune system. Although fecal particles from HDM and bites from ticks represent two distinct causes of sensitization, both involve a complex array of molecules that contribute to an innate response.

Identification of specific molecules will inform our understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to allergic immunity, however the key may lie in the combination of molecules delivered to specific sites in the body. Allergic immunity consists of a network of cells and mediators that are abundant in the skin and mucosal tissue.

The system likely evolved as a rapid-defense mechanism to combat extracellular threats from helminths, ecto-parasites, and venomous animals 1 , 2. However, in the industrial world this form of immunity is best known as the cause of allergic diseases, which generally occur as a result of aberrant immune activation to otherwise innocuous environmental antigens.

Contemporary understanding of allergic immunity includes not only IgE but also a variety of other cells and mediators that include Th2 cells, ILC2 cells, mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils.

Because Th2 cells play a critical role, allergic immunity is also often referred to as Th2-related, or type-2 3. Despite the fact that it has been over 50 years since IgE was characterized, there remain many gaps in our understanding of the mechanisms and pathways that contribute to allergic immunity.

Nonetheless, it is increasingly clear that the evolutionarily ancient innate immune system must play a critical role in shaping the development of allergic responses 4. There are two main ways that activation of the innate immune system could contribute to allergic disease. Firstly, agents which are recognized by the innate immune system could contribute to allergic symptoms via mechanisms that are independent of IgE antibodies.

To frame this discussion about the role of innate immunity in allergic disease, here we focus on two taxonomically-related arthropods that have strong associations with allergic disease 5. Specifically, we discuss the relevance of house dust mite HDM feces and tick bites as discrete entities that are well established triggers of IgE responses.

Our emphasis is on studies carried out in humans or with human samples, but we also touch on some animal studies that provide additional support. When house dust mites were first established as a major source of house dust allergens, which occurred around as children in the Western World were spending more and more time indoors, purification of the protein allergens from those acarids became an important objective.

Many allergens were identified by cross radio immunoelectrophoresis. In , Chapman purified Dermatophagoides pteronysinnus allergen 1 Der p 1 and that rapidly led to the ability to measure the protein and to the recognition that the mite fecal particles were the major source of allergen that accumulated in cultures 7 , 8.

Work by Tovey 9 went on to establish that the fecal particle is the major form in which mite allergens become airborne in houses. Further, the size of those particles at 20—35 microns in diameter is such that they contain sufficient allergen for a single particle to induce a positive prick test in an allergic individual.

Ultimately these particles turned out to be a treasure trove of different proteins and other molecules that could contribute to the immune response to an increasing list of fully defined protein allergens see www.

In many cases the allergens themselves had intrinsic capacity to activate innate immune pathways, though there were also many other biologically active molecules.

Although important concepts and nomenclature in innate immunity had yet to be coined and described by the likes of Charles Janeway Jr.

This is facilitated by several families of pathogen—recognition receptors PRRs of which the Toll-like receptor TLR family is perhaps best known. Considering the size and known contents of the mite fecal particles, it is interesting to think about the published evidence on delivery of innate receptor ligands and their efficacy as adjuvants.

Medzhitov et al. Taken together, mite allergens present an example where the activators of several innate pathways are inevitably physically close to the mite allergens. In some countries the dominance of mite allergens in relation to asthma has been truly remarkable. As late as , Heymann studied children presenting to hospital with acute asthma in San Jose, Costa Rica.

Those studies demonstrated that IgE to mite allergens was not only highly prevalent, but also much higher titer than those to other allergens in sera from asthmatic patients We would also emphasize that in an environment with very high levels of exposure to both HDM and cat e.

Figure 1. Major HDM allergens and associated constituents present in fecal particles. B Image of fecal particle image courtesy of Euan Tovey. C Molecular structure of major HDM allergens. During the 's and 's, dust mite allergens were extensively purified and characterized 6 , 7 , Up to the late 's it was assumed that the IgE response to these allergens was facilitated by direct allergen recognition and activation of Th2 cells.

Prior to this time there was little awareness of innate immunity and of its importance in acting as a bridge to T cell activation 25 , We are now aware of more than 30 IgE-binding HDM allergens, many of which have a range of functional biological activities and can directly or indirectly trigger innate immune responses 27 , Among these, Der p 1, Der p 2, and Der p 23 are identified as the major allergens of D.

Of note, these correspond to group 1, group 2, and group 23 allergens of other species of HDM. Der p 1 was initially recognized as a serine protease and was demonstrated to have the ability to cleave tight junctions, open up epithelial barriers and remove surface receptors such as CD25 and CD23 7 , 25 , Disruption of epithelium increases allergen uptake by dendritic cells in the mucosa and contributes to tissue damage. By interacting with its cognate receptor ST2 that is expressed on Th2, ILC2, mast cells and basophils, IL is increasingly recognized as an important early mediator of type-2 immune responses 33 , Of note, emerging evidence suggests that IL can also act directly as a sensor for Der p 1 and other allergen proteases The second major allergen purified, Der p 2, has structural and biochemical similarity with the TLR4 co-receptor MD-2 17 , 24 , 35 — As such, it may enhance lipopolysaccharide LPS effects on TLR4, thereby promoting production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Der p 23 is a peritrophin-like protein that was recently acknowledged as a third major allergen 30 , It is speculated to have chitin-binding properties, as has been reported for peritrophin, though this has yet to be experimentally confirmed 39 , Because Der p 23 is only present in mite fecal particles in minimal quantities it raises some confusion, but it is nonetheless able to induce high titer IgE antibodies in a large proportion of subjects.

Several other HDM allergens have also been shown or are thought to be able to activate the innate immune system. For example, Der p 3, Der p 6 and Der p 9 all have protease activity In addition, Der p 5, Der p 7, and Der p 21 share the feature of being lipid-binding proteins Interestingly, a number of important allergens in plants, mammals, and arthropods have been found to be lipid-associated and it is thought that bound lipids can contribute to innate signaling by interacting with TLRs Consistent with this view, Der p 5 has been demonstrated to activate respiratory epithelial cells in a TLR2-dependent manner As previously mentioned, HDM fecal particles are a rich carrier of not only allergenic proteins but also other components that include mite DNA, bacterial DNA 44 , chitin, environmental pollutants, microorganisms fungi, bacteria, virus, etc.

Chitin is a polysaccharide that is abundant in HDM exoskeleton but also found as a component of fecal particles Signaling via TLR2, chitin has been shown to promote Th2 sensitization A detailed understanding of the molecular details of how HDM interact with the innate immune system has major challenges. As outlined by Jacquet 52 , the exact composition of house dust is not clearly known and there can be major variations in allergen composition in different dust samples.

It is likely that the abundance and diversity of such molecules is a major factor that contributes to HDM allergenicity. The hypothesis also includes a highly fatal pandemic caused by a virus or bacterium which carried this epitope. A factor creating special interest was that these reactions were most common in an area focused on Tennessee, Oklahoma, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Virginia.

Following up on the regional connection, we realized that this was similar to the reported map of maximum incidence of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever RMSF and best explained by the prevalence of a tick which is primarily carried by deer which have been allowed to infest the suburban areas of the Eastern United States 64 , It then became clear that this form of allergic disease was also present in several other parts of the world, including Australia, Sweden, France, Germany, and Japan The striking feature from our point of view was that in each of these countries it appeared that the cause of sensitization was tick bites.

In addition, mammalian meat e. In the United States, the primary cause of tick bites in the area where the disease was first recognized is the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum In other countries the ticks that are recognized as being relevant are generally the most common species biting humans. This may be relevant in the sense that sensitization to the level where the syndrome becomes clinically obvious may require repeated tick bites 75 — It is also possible that the length of tick mouthparts are relevant to sensitization or allergic reactions to ticks , as ticks such as A.

In the United States there are large areas of the country where Lyme disease, which is transmitted by l. Despite the fact that I. Interestingly, the tick bites we studied between and had a striking characteristic which was intense itching after the bites. By contrast, a major study on Lyme disease was carried out on Block Island which lies 15 km off Rhode Island We consider that there are two important messages from these studies of pruritic tick bites. The first is that itching after a tick bite is probably a negative characteristic relative to the transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi and other tick-borne pathogens.

The second message is the suggestion that allergic immunity, which involves the elaboration of histamine and other mediators that contribute to pruritis, is an adaptive response that evolved in mammals, in part, to defend against ticks and the pathogens they harbor see Figure 2 1 , 2 , This message is important because historically some have viewed Th2-related immunity as an anti-inflammatory response that is maladaptive and directed primarily by and for the advantage of the tick 86 , Part of the confusion about the teleology of type 2 immunity and ticks probably relates to earlier views that suggested that Th1 and Th2 responses represented binary arms of the immune system.

Figure 2. Model of allergic immunity in anti-tick defense. However, during this initial exposure Th2 cells and IgE-producing B cells are generated. Th2 cells and basophils are recruited to the skin. IgE-armed basophils play a particularly important role in acquired tick defense ATR to subsequent tick bites.

The amount of IgE and number of basophils can be enhanced after repetitive tick bites. As a consequence, both tick feeding and pathogen transmission are impaired. The anti-tick response can include IgE to a -Gal, but also other tick antigens that have yet to be characterized. Animal models have also played important roles in informing our understanding of the role of allergic immunity in defense against tick feeding.

As early as the 's work on guinea pigs revealed that immunity was acquired following a primary tick infestation that provided protection against a subsequent tick infestation s As recently reviewed by Karasuyama et al.

Studies suggest that basophils play a particularly important role in anti-tick defense. First, basophils accumulate at tick bite lesions, both in humans and in animal models, with increasing frequency with serial tick bites 53 , 90 — Second, ablation of basophils with antibodies or with genetic approaches in animal models leads to a decrease in acquired immunity 93 , Further evidence for this model is the fact that: i tick saliva contains several histamine-binding proteins which act to block the activity of host-derived histamine 78 and ii administration of an H1 histamine blocker to mice was sufficient to impair acquired resistance to a 2nd tick infestation Detailed investigation revealed that the major source of the histamine at the site of the tick lesion was from basophils, not mast cells A recent study introduced extracts from pathogen-free A.

Interestingly, there was a marked increase in total serum IgE following sensitization at day 0 and 7, which was further pronounced with a challenge at day 31 To investigate elements of innate immunity that could be priming the IgE response, a TLR screen was conducted. They additionally showed that the response was MyD88 dependent, with a specific B-cell intrinsic role for MyD88 in promoting IgE class switch